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Printability disparities in heterogeneous material combinations via laser directed energy deposition:a comparative study

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International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing 2024年第2期6卷 389-405页

作者： Jinsheng Ning Lida Zhu Shuhao Wang Zhichao Yang Peihua Xu Pengsheng Xue Hao Lu Miao Yu Yunhang Zhao Jiachen Li Susmita Bose Amit Bandyopadhyay School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation Northeastern UniversityShenyang 110819People’s Republic of China School of Machinery and Automation Wuhan University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430081People’s Republic of China School of Mechanical Engineering Xi’an University of Science and TechnologyXi’an 710054People’s Republic of China Beijing Institute of Space Launch Technology Beijing 100076People’s Republic of China W.M.Keck Biomedical Materials Research Lab School of Mechanical and Materials EngineeringWashington State UniversityPullmanWA 99164United States of America

Additive manufacturing provides achievability for the fabrication of bimetallic and multi-material structures;however,the material compatibility and bondability directly affect the parts’formability and final quality.It is essential to understand the underlying printability of different material combinations based on an adapted process.Here,the printability disparities of two common and attractive material combinations(nickel-and iron-based alloys)are evaluated at the macro and micro levels via laser directed energy deposition(DED).The deposition processes were captured using in situ high-speed imaging,and the dissimilarities in melt pool features and track morphology were quantitatively investigated within specific process windows.Moreover,the microstructure diversity of the tracks and blocks processed with varied material pairs was comparatively elaborated and,complemented with the informative multi-physics modeling,the presented non-uniformity in mechanical properties(microhardness)among the heterogeneous material pairs was rationalized.The differences in melt flow induced by the unlike thermophysical properties of the material pairs and the resulting element intermixing and localized re-alloying during solidification dominate the presented dissimilarity in printability among the material combinations.This work provides an in-depth understanding of the phenomenological differences in the deposition of dissimilar materials and aims to guide more reliable DED forming of bimetallic parts.

关键词： directed energy deposition printability microstructure microhardness bimetallic parts

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Effect of hot isostatic pressure on the microstructure and tensile properties of γ'-strengthened superalloy fabricated through induction-assisted directed energy deposition

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International Journal of Minerals,Metallurgy and Materials 2024年第5期31卷 1089-1097页

作者： Jianjun Xu Hanlin Ding Xin Lin Feng Liu Analytical&Testing Center Northwestern Polytechnical UniversityXi’an 710072China State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing Northwestern Polytechnical UniversityXi’an 710072China

The microstructure characteristics and strengthening mechanism of Inconel738LC(IN-738LC) alloy prepared by using induction-assisted directed energy deposition(IDED) were elucidated through the investigation of samples subjected to IDED under 1050℃ preheating with and without hot isostatic pressing(HIP,1190℃,105 MPa,and 3 h).Results show that the as-deposited sample mainly consisted of epitaxial columnar crystals and inhomogeneously distributed γ’ phases in interdendritic and dendritic core regions.After HIP,grain morphology changed negligibly,whereas the size of the γ’ phase became increasingly even.After further heat treatment(HT,1070℃,2 h + 845℃,24 h),the γ’ phase in the as-deposited and HIPed samples presented a bimodal size distribution,whereas that in the as-deposited sample showed a size that remained uneven.The comparison of tensile properties revealed that the tensile strength and uniform elongation of the HIP + HTed sample increased by 5% and 46%,respectively,due to the synergistic deformation of bimodal γ’phases,especially large cubic γ’ phases.Finally,the relationship between phase transformations and plastic deformations in the IDEDed sample was discussed on the basis of generalized stability theory in terms of the trade-off between thermodynamics and kinetics.

关键词： directed energy deposition Ni-based superalloys high-temperature preheating hot isostatic pressing microstructure tensile properties

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Real-time porosity reduction during metal directed energy deposition using a pulse laser

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2022年第21期116卷 214-223页

作者： Hoon Sohn Peipei Liu Hansol Yoon Kiyoon Yi Liu Yang Sangjun Kim Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology(KAIST)Daejeon 34141Republic of Korea Center for 3D Printing Nondestructive Testing Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology(KAIST)Daejeon 34141Republic of Korea Global R&D Center SQ EngineeringSeoul 05818Republic of Korea Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering The Hong Kong University of Science and TechnologyClear Water BayKowloonHong KongChina

Porosity is a challenging issue in additive manufacturing and is detrimental to the quality of the additively manufactured products.In this study,a real-time porosity reduction technique was developed by incorporating a pulse laser into a laser metal powder directed energy deposition(DED)system.The incorporated pulse laser can accelerate fluid flow within the melt pool and facilitate the escape of pores before complete solidification.It achieves this real-time porosity reduction by inducing accelerated and turbulent Marangoni flow,ultrasonic waves,and shock waves into the melt pool.The uniqueness and advantages of the proposed technique include the following:(1)For a laser metal powder DED process,this study proposed a noncontact,nondestructive,and real-time porosity reduction technique at the melt pool level.(2)It was experimentally and numerically validated that the developed technique did not alter the geometry and the grain structure of the manufactured Ti-6Al-4V samples.(3)Because the porosity reduction is accomplished at the melt pool level,its application is not limited by the size,shape,or complexity of the printing target.(4)The developed technique can be readily incorporated into the existing DED systems without any modification of the original tool-path design.The experimental results showed that the pore volume fraction decreased from 0.132%to 0.005%,no pores larger than 6×10^(4)μm^(3) were observed,and a 91%reduction in the total pore number was achieved when the pulse laser energy reached 11.5 mJ.

关键词： Real-time porosity reduction Pulse laser Melt pool directed energy deposition Ti-6Al-4V

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Effect of grain structure on the mechanical properties of a Monel alloy fabricated by laser-based directed energy deposition

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2023年第33期164卷 129-139页

作者： Ze Chen Wei Fan Shubo Gao Yang Qi Sastry Yagnanna Kandukuri Kun Zhou Singapore Centre for 3D Printing School of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringNanyang Technological University50 Nanyang AvenueSingapore 639798Singapore DNV AS HøvikOslo 1363Norway

Monel K-500 is a Ni–Cu alloy widely used in the marine and offshore industry due to their superior resistance to corrosion in seawater and hence easily degraded.To address this problem,laser-based directed energy deposition(LDED)is used to repair or refabricate these high-value worn parts.To optimize the mechanical properties of repaired parts,the commonly applied solution and aging is not ideal because it also changes the properties of the base materials.Consequently,in situ control of the grain structures during the LDED process becomes an effective approach for high-performance repair.In this study,we fabricated a duplex grain structure with small grain size and low texture intensity using low laser power and scanning velocity.The duplex microstructure consists of short columnar grains and zigzag-distributed fine equiaxed grains.The formation of this grain structure is dependent on both the solidification and recrystallization mechanisms.The strength of this grain structure is improved to 523.5 MPa without the sacrifice of ductility,which is instead 20%higher than that of the counterpart consisting of typical columnar grains due to the grain refinement and crack toughening.The mechanical properties of the alloy with the duplex grain structure are even comparable to heat-treated Monel K-500 fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing.This work provides valuable insights into the in situ optimization of the microstructure and mechanical properties of LDED-fabricated parts.

关键词： Additive manufacturing directed energy deposition Monel alloy Grain structure Mechanical properties

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Globularization Mechanism and Near Isotropic Properties in Subcritical Heat‑Treated Ti6Al4V Fabricated by directed energy deposition

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Acta Metallurgica Sinica(English Letters) 2023年第6期36卷 937-948页

作者： Guohao Zhang Zhiwei Hao Meng Wang Xufei Lu Zhuang Zhao Qian Wang Xin Lin Jing Chen Weidong Huang State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing Northwestern Polytechnical UniversityXi’an 710072China MIIT Key Laboratory of Metal High Performance Additive Manufacturing and Innovative Design Northwestern Polytechnical UniversityXi’an 710072China International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering Universidad Politecnica de Cataluna08034 BarcelonaSpain Institute of Machinery Manufacturing Technology China Academy of Engineering PhysicsMianyang 621054China

Microstructure with globularαphase is desirable as it contributes to preferable comprehensive mechanical properties for titanium alloys.However,titanium alloys fabricated by directed energy deposition(DED)are mainly characterized by the lamellarαphase within the basket-weave microstructure,which often leads to severe anisotropy and inferior low cycle fatigue(LCF)properties.To address this,the subcritical annealing and the cyclic annealing were applied to DED Ti–6Al–4V in order to achieve the transformation from the lamellarαphase to the globularαphase.The microstructural characteristics and the globularization behavior ofαphase during heat treatment were investigated.The results show that the aspect ratio ofαis significantly decreased with the subcritical annealing due to the coarsening of lamellarα.Furthermore,the globularαis obtained with the cyclic annealing as a combination result of the termination dissolution and the side surface growth of the lamellarα.These contribute to a pronounced reduction of 85.4%in the ductility anisotropy,compared with the as-built specimens,and superior comprehensive mechanical properties including LCF are achieved with the formation of globularα.

关键词： directed energy deposition Ti-6Al-4V Subcritical heat treatment Coarsening Globularization

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Effect of ultrasonic micro-forging treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of GH3039 superalloy processed by directed energy deposition

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2021年第11期70卷 185-196页

作者： Qingqing Li Yong Zhang Jie Chen Bugao Guo Weicheng Wang Yuhai Jing Yong Liu Key Laboratory of Lightweight and High Strength Structural Materials of Jiangxi Province Nanchang UniversityNanchang 330031China Postdoctoral Research Station of Mechanical Engineering Nanchang UniversityNanchang 330031China

In this work,ultrasonic micro-forging treatment(UMFT)was introduced to achieve homogeneous microstructure,reduce defects and improve mechanical properties of GH3039 superalloy cladding layer processed by directed energy deposition(DED).The microstructure,defects and mechanical properties of the cladding layers treated by UMFT with different ultrasonic powers(UIPs)were investigated.Results revealed a gradient structure as equiaxed grains distributed at the top,a columnar-to-equiaxed transition(CET)region that mixed of columnar dendrites and equiaxed grains distributed at the middle and columnar dendrites at the bottom of the cladding layer was formed.After UMFT,the proportion of equiaxed grains was increased,the average size of equiaxed grains was refined to 10μm from 16μm,the orientation of grains was more uniform and the phases enriched of Al,Ti,C,Nb and Mo were precipitated.The grain refinement can be attributed to the fracture of columnar dendrites induced by the ultrasonic vibration during solidification.Besides,the porosity of the cladding layer was reduced after UMFT.The microhardness of the cladding layers exhibited a depth-dependent gradient at the top region.The microhardness of the top surface was the highest and showed an increasing trend with the increase of UIP.The microhardness of different grain morphologies exhibited no substantial difference.However,due to grain refinement and precipitation of strengthening phase induced by UMFT,the microhadness of some local locations were improved.These results indicated UMFT has a significant effect on improving the microstructure,defects and mechanical properties of the deposited cladding layer.

关键词： directed energy deposition GH3039 superalloy Ultrasonic micro-forging treatment Microstructure evolution Mechanical properties

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Interfacial characteristics and mechanical properties of additive manufacturing martensite stainless steel on the Cu-Cr alloy substrate by directed energy deposition

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2021年第31期90卷 121-132页

作者： Wenqi Zhang Hailong Liao Zhiheng Hu Shasha Zhang Baijin Chen Huanqing Yang Yun Wang Haihong Zhu Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430074China State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die&Mould Technology School of Material Science and EngineeringHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430074China XI’AN Space Engine Company Limited Xi’an710100China

Copper/steel is a typical bimetal functional material,combining the excellent electrical and thermal conductivity of copper alloy and the high strength and hardness of stainless steel.There has been recent interest in manufacturing copper/steel bimetal by directed energy deposition(DED)due to its layer-bylayer method.However,cracks tend to form on the copper/steel interface because of the great difference in thermal expansion coefficient and crystal structure between copper and steel.In this work,interfacial characteristics and mechanical properties of the copper/steel bimetal were studied from one layer to multilayers.The laser power has a great influence on the Cu element distribution of the molten pool,affecting the crack formation dramatically on the solidification stage.Cracks tend to form along columnar grain boundaries because of the Cu-rich liquid films and spherical particles in the cracks.Crack-free and good metallurgical bonding copper/steel interface is formed at a scanning velocity of 800 mm/min and the laser power of 3000 W.The ultimate tensile strength(UTS)and the break elongation(EL)of the vertically combined crack-free copper/steel bimetal are 238.2±4.4 MPa and 20.6±0.7%,respectively.The fracture occurs on the copper side instead of the copper/steel interface,indicating that the bonding strength is higher than that of the Cu-Cr alloy.The UTS of the horizontally combined crack-free copper/steel bimetal is 746.7±22.6 MPa,which is 200%higher than that of the Cu-Cr alloy substrate.The microhardness is 398.6±5.4 HV at the steel side and is 235.3±64.1 HV at the interface,which is400%higher than that of the Cu-Cr alloy substrate.This paper advances the understanding of the interfacial characteristics of heterogeneous materials and provides guidance and reference for the fabrication of multi-material components by DED.

关键词： directed energy deposition Additive manufacturing Bimetal Interfacial characteristics Crack

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Microstructural banding of directed energy deposition-additively manufactured 316L stainless steel

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2021年第10期69卷 96-105页

作者： Yoon Hwa Christopher S.Kumai Thomas M.Devine Nancy Yang Joshua K.Yee Ryan Hardwick Kai Burgmann Department of Materials Science and Engineering University of CaliforniaBerkeleyCA94720USA Sandia National Laboratory LivermoreCA.94551USA

The microstructures of 316L stainless steel created by rapid solidification are investigated by comparing the similar microstructures of individual hatches of directed energy deposition additive manufacturing(DED-AM)and those of single,laser surface-melted tracks formed on a solid plate.High recoil pressure,which is exponentially dependent on the laser beam power density,induces convection of the melt pool,which causes formation of microstructural bands in the as-solidified microstructure.The microstructural bands are associated with changes in the chromium concentration and are a significant component of the inhomogeneous microstructure of DED-AM.

关键词： Additive manufacturing directed energy deposition Stainless steel Rapid solidification Recoil pressure Microstructure

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Additive manufacturing of copper-stainless steel hybrid components using laser-aided directed energy deposition

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2021年第21期80卷 100-116页

作者： Xinchang Zhang Tan Pan Yitao Chen Lan Li Yimlu Zhang Frank Liou Department of Mechanical&Aerospace Engineering Missouri University of Science and TechnologyRollaMO65409USA

Combining dissimilar materials in a single component is an effective solution to integrate diverse material properties into a single part.Copper-stainless steel hybrid components are attracting more and more attention since the high thermal conductivity of copper can greatly enhance the thermal performance of stainless steel,which benefits its applications in many industries.However,direct joining of copper and stainless steel such as SS316 L is challenging since they preserve significant dissimilarities in physical,chemical,and thermo-mechanical properties.This paper aims to fabricate well-bonded copper-SS316 L hybrid parts using a laser-aided directed energy deposition(DED) process.A nickel-based alloy Deloro22(D22) is introduced between copper and SS316 L to address the detrimental issues in copper-SS316 L direct joints.Using this technique,defect-free interfaces are achieved at both the D22-SS316 L and copper-D22 transition zones.Tensile testing of Cu-D22-SS316 L and D22-SS316 L hybrid parts shows the fracture occurs at pure copper and SS316 L region,respectively,indicating an excellent bonding at the interfaces.Ascending in the building direction,a transition of grain structure is observed.A significant diffusion zone is obtained at both the D22-SS316 L and the Cu-D22 interfaces.The large diffusion distance results in a smooth variation in microhardness over the dissimilar materials.The microhardness increases from SS316 L to D22 with the highest value of 240 HV and then decreases from D22 to Cu with the lowest value of 63 ± 4 HV.Testing of thermophysical properties of the Cu-D22-SS316 L system indicates there is a ~300 % increase in thermal diffusivity and a ~200 % increase in thermal conductivity when compared to pure SS316 L.The significant increase in thermal diffusivity and conductivity validates the enhanced thermal performance of SS316 L when it is joined with pure copper.

关键词： Additive manufacturing directed energy deposition Multi-material components Dissimilar materials Copper Stainless steel

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Microstructural features of Ti-6Al-4V manufactured via high power laser directed energy deposition under low-cycle fatigue

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Journal of Materials Science & Technology 2021年第24期83卷 18-33页

作者： Y.M.Ren X.Lin H.O.Yang H.Tan J.Chen Z.Y.Jian J.Q.Li W.D.Huang School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Xi’an Technological UniversityXi’an710021China State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing Northwestern Polytechnical UniversityXi’an710072China

Laser additive manufacturing(LAM)technique has unique advantages in producing geometrically complex metallic components.However,the poor low-cycle fatigue property(LCF)of LAM parts restricts its widely used.Here,the microstructural features of a Ti-6 Al-4 V alloy manufactured via high power laser directed energy deposition subjected to low-cycle fatigue loading were studied.Before fatigue loading,the microstructure of the as-deposited parts was found to exhibit a non-homogeneous distribution of columnar prior-βgrains(200-4000μm)at various scanning velocities(300-1500 mm/min)and relatively coarseα-laths(1.0-4.5μm).Under cyclic loading,fatigue microcracks typically initiated within the alignedαphases in the preferred orientation(45°to the loading direction)at the surface of the fatigue specimens.Fatigued Ti-6 Al-4 V exhibited a single straight dislocation character at low strain amplitudes(1.1%).In addition,dislocation substructure features,such as dislocation walls,stacking faults,and dislocation networks,were also observed.These findings may provide opportunities to understand the fatigue failure mechanism of additive manufactured titanium parts.

关键词： Laser additive manufacturing directed energy deposition Titanium alloy Low-cycle fatigue Microstructure

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