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How.United States Agricultural Herbicides Became Military and Environmental Chemical w.apons: Historical and Residual Effects

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Open Journal of Soil Science 2022年第2期12卷 13-81页

作者： Kenneth R. Olson Larry Cihacek Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences University of Illinois Urbana USA School of Natural Resource Sciences North Dakota State University Fargo USA

Discoveries in Charles Darw.n’s laboratory led to modern herbicides. Darw.n discovered the internal mechanism that directed plants to grow.tow.rd sunlight and sources of w.ter. Scientists in Europe and America later called this mechanism a plant’s hormone response system. Administrators and scientists, including Dr. Ezra J. Kraus, the Head of the Botany Department at the University of Chicago and a plant physiologist, suggested on the eve of w.II that w.ed killers had significant military value as chemical w.apons. Dr. Kraus obtained access to a synthetic chemical, 2,4-D, and found that w.en the chemical w.s absorbed through the leaves of plants, it destroyed a plant’s hormones. After exposure, the plant experienced rapid and uncontrolled grow.h, and then the leaves shriveled, died and fell off. Dr. Kraus obtained funding for his Department of Botany research program from Department of Defense (DOD) during w.rld w.r II (w.II). Camp Detrick (Biological w.apons Laboratory) scientists later obtained samples of new.y created 2,4,5-T w.ich contained unknow. amounts of the by-product dioxin TCDD. In the 1950s and 1960s, Fort Detrick military scientists formulated the herbicide Agent Orange, w.ich w.s a 50 - 50 mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. These dual purpose herbicides w.re used by DOD and USDA. American and European farmers in the 1940s used 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T to eliminate w.eds from pastureland and cropland. After w.II, synthetic herbicides (and pesticides) development continued in tandem w.th production of synthetic fertilizers and breeding of high-yield plant varieties. These new.agricultural products w.re then shipped w.rldw.de to increase crop yields, as part of the Green Revolution. This new.system of agricultural technologies w.s intended to eliminate global starvation and increase food security by increasing field and farm crop yields. In contrast, the goal of military use of herbicides, as chemical w.apons, w.s to defoliate jungle forests and destroy food crops a

关键词： Agent Orange Agent Blue Dioxin TCDD Cacodylic Acid Arsenic Environmental w.apons Chemical w.apons Ecocide TIBA 2 4-D 2 4 5 -T Ezra J. Kraus arthur w. galston Green Revolution Agricultural Herbicides

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The Fate of Agent Blue, the Arsenic Based Herbicide, Used in South Vietnam during the Vietnam w.r

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Open Journal of Soil Science 2020年第11期10卷 518-577页

作者： Kenneth R. Olson Larry Cihacek Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA School of Natural Resources North Dakota State University Fargo North Dakota USA

The destruction of the South Vietnamese rice (Oryza sativa L) crop using an arsenic-based herbicide know. as Agent Blue during the American Vietnam w.r (1965-1972) w.s not a secret;how.ver, it received little media attention in the United States. Republic of Vietnam and United States (U.S.) militaries began destroying food crops (rice) in November of 1962 primarily via aerial applications in the Mekong Delta and Central Highlands of South Vietnam. Spraying of Agent Blue on 100,000 ha of mangrove forests and about 300,000 ha of rice paddies just before rice harvest time resulted in the destruction of the standing crop and rendered the land contaminated w.th arsenic (As). Six Rainbow.herbicides, commonly called Agent Orange, Agent Green, Agent Pink, Agent Purple, Agent w.ite, and Agent Blue, w.re sprayed on w.tlands, rice paddies, forests, mangroves, bamboo and military base perimeter fences to defoliate jungle vegetation, reveal guerilla hiding places and destroy the food supply of enemy troops. South Vietnamese farmers, U.S. and Republic of Vietnam military personnel, and communist insurgents w.re exposed to these herbicides w.th immediate and longer term impacts on personal health, civilian household food security and population-w.de famine. Agent Blue (cacodylic acid, C2H2AsO2,) w.s the most effective of all the Rainbow.herbicides in killing rice and grasses. Manufacturing of cacodylic acid began in the late 1950s in the U.S. at the Ansul Company chemical plant in Marinette, w.sconsin and Menominee, Michigan. During the Vietnam w.r, ocean going ships w.re loaded w.th 208-liter Agent Blue barrels and shipped via the St. Law.ence Seaw.y to the coast of South Vietnam. Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring element that is found throughout SE Asia deltas including the Mekong Delta. Today arsenic contaminated rice and groundw.ter are grow.ng concerns as neither naturally occurring arsenic nor anthropic arsenic have a half-life a

关键词： Ansul Chemical Company arthur w. galston Arsenic As Food Crops Groundw.ter Marinette w.sconsin Menominee Michigan Menominee River Rice Rice Paddies Rainbow.Herbicides Mekong Delta

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