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An Arduino-Based Wireless Sensor Network for Soil Moisture Monitoring Using Decagon EC-5 Sensors

Open Journal of Soil Science 2017年第10期7卷 288-300页

作者： José O. Payero ali mirzakhani nafchi Rebecca Davis Ahmad Khalilian Edisto Research and Education Center Clemson University Blackville SC USA Department of Agricultural Sciences Clemson University Clemson SC USA

It is undeniable that wireless communication technology has become a very important component of modern society. One aspect of modern society in which application of wireless communication technologies has tremendous potential is in agricultural production. This is especially true in the area of sensing and transmission of relevant farming information such as weather, crop development, water quantity and quality, among others, which would allow farmers to make more accurate and timely farming decisions. A good example would be the application of wireless communication technology to transmit soil moisture data in real time to help farmers make irrigation scheduling decisions. Although many systems are commercially available for soil moisture monitoring, there are still many important factors, such as cost, limiting widespread adoption of this technology among growers. Our objective in this study was, therefore, to develop and test an affordable wireless communication system for monitoring soil moisture using Decagon EC-5 sensors. The new system uses Arduino-compatible microcontrollers and communication systems to sample and transmit values from four Decagon EC-5 soil moisture sensors. Developing the system required conducting lab calibrations for the EC-5 sensors for the microcontroller operating in either 10-bit or 12-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC) resolution. The system was successfully tested in the field and reliably collected and transmitted data from a wheat field for more than two months.

关键词： Wireless Communication Soil Moisture Sensors Arduino Decagon EC-5 Calibration Irrigation Scheduling Internet-Of-Things

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Evaluating the Effect of Soil Texture on the Response of Three Types of Sensors Used to Monitor Soil Water Status

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Journal of Water Resource and Protection 2017年第6期9卷 566-577页

作者： José O. Payero Xin Qiao Ahmad Khalilian ali mirzakhani-nafchi Rebecca Davis Edisto Research and Education Center Clemson University Blackville SC USA Department of Agricultural Sciences Clemson University Clemson SC USA

Accurate monitoring of soil water status can be an important component of precision irrigation water management. A variety of commercial sensors measure soil water status by relating sensor electrical output to soil water content or soil water potential. However, sensor electrical output can also be affected by soil characteristics other than water content, such as soil texture, salinity, and temperature. This makes it difficult to accurately measure and interpret soil water status without prior on-site calibration. In this study, we investigated the impact of soil texture on the response of three types of sensors commonly used to monitor soil water status, including the Decagon EC-5, the Vegetronix VH400, and the Watermark 200ss granular matrix sensor. A replicated laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the response of these types of sensors using four major soil textural classes commonly found in South Carolina. We found that the three types of sensors had a significant response to changes in soil water content, but while the EC-5 and VH400 sensors had a linear response, the Watermark 200ss had a curvilinear response that was explained by an exponential decay function. The response of the three sensor types, however, was significantly affected by soil texture, which will significantly affect the trigger point used to initiate irrigation based on the output from these sensors. Therefore, it is suggested that guidelines on how to use these sensors for local soils need to be developed and made available to farmers, so that they can make better irrigation scheduling decisions.

关键词： Soil Moisture Soil Texture Irrigation Sensors Calibration Soil Water

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Development of a Low-Cost Internet-of-Things (IoT) System for Monitoring Soil Water Potential Using Watermark 200SS Sensors

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Advances in Internet of Things 2017年第3期7卷 71-86页

作者： José O. Payero ali mirzakhani-nafchi Ahmad Khalilian Xin Qiao Rebecca Davis Edisto Research and Education Center Clemson University Blackville SC USA Department of Agricultural Sciences Clemson University Clemson SC USA

Soil moisture monitoring is one of the methods that farmers can use for irrigation scheduling. Many sensor types and data logging systems have been developed for this purpose over the years, but their widespread adoption in practical irrigation scheduling is still limited due to a variety of factors. Important factors limiting adoption of soil moisture sensing technology by farmers include high cost and difficulties in timely data collection and interpretation. Recent developments in open source microcontrollers (such as Arduino), wireless communication, and Internet-of-Things (IoT) technologies offer opportunities for reducing cost and facilitating timely data collection, visualization, and interpretation for farmers. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop and test a low-cost IoT system for soil moisture monitoring using Watermark 200SS sensors. The system uses Arduino-based microcontrollers and data from the field sensors (End Nodes) are communicated wirelessly using LoRa radios to a receiver (Coordinator), which connects to the Internet via WiFi and sends the data to an open-source website (***) where the data can be visualized and further analyzed using Matlab. The system was successfully tested under field conditions by installing Watermark sensors at four depths in a wheat field. The system described here could contribute to widespread adoption of easy-to-use and affordable moisture sensing technologies among farmers.

关键词： Irrigation Scheduling Automation Sensors Soil Moisture Internet-of-Things Arduino Watermark Sensors Calibration

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Influence of Tillage and Deep Rooted Cool Season Cover Crops on Soil Properties, Pests, and Yield Responses in Cotton

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Open Journal of Soil Science 2016年第10期6卷 149-158页

作者： Michael W. Marshall Phillip Williams ali mirzakhani nafchi Joe Mario Maja Jose Payero John Mueller Ahmad Khalilian Edisto Research & Education Center (Edisto REC) Clemson University Blackville SC USA Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Clemson University Clemson SC USA

Soil compaction is a significant problem in the Southeastern USA. This compacted zone or hardpan limits root penetration below this layer and reduces potential yield and makes plants more susceptible to drought induced stresses. Soil compaction in this region is managed using costly annual deep tillage at or before planting and there is a great interest in reducing and/or eliminating annual tillage operations to lower production costs. Deep rooted cool season cover crops can penetrate this compacted soil zone and create channels, which cash crop roots, such as cotton, could follow to capture moisture and nutrients stored in the subsoil. The cool season cover crop roots would reduce the need for annual deep tillage prior to planting, increases soil organic matter, which provides greater water infiltration and available water holding capacity. Field studies were conducted for two years with three different soil series to determine the effects of tillage systems and cool season cover crops on the soil chemical and physical properties, yield responses, and pest pressure. Results showed that cool season cover crops significantly reduced soil compaction, increased cotton lint yield and soil moisture content, reduced nematode population densities, and increased soil available P, K, Mn, and organic matter content compared to the conventional no-cover crop.

关键词： Cover Crop Cotton Soil Compaction Nematodes Soil Water Content Tillage

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Development and Application of Cell-Phone-Based Internet of Things (IoT) Systems for Soil Moisture Monitoring

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Agricultural Sciences 2021年第5期12卷 549-564页

作者： José O. Payero Michael W. Marshall Bhupinder S. Farmaha Rebecca Hitchcock Davis ali mirzakhani nafchi Clemson University Edisto Research and Education Center Blackville USA Cornell University New York USA

Active soil moisture monitoring is an important consideration in irrigation water management. A permanent and readily accessible record of changes in soil moisture can be used to improve future water management decision-making. Similarly, accessing stored soil moisture data in near-real-time is also essential for making timely farming and management decisions, such as where, when, and how much irrigation to apply. Access to reliable communication systems and delivery of real-time data can be affected by its availability near production fields. Therefore, soil moisture monitoring systems with real-time data functionality that can meet the needs of farmers at an affordable cost are currently needed. The objective of the study was to develop and fieldtest affordable cell-phone-based Internet of things (IoT) systems for soil moisture monitoring. These IoT systems were designed using low-cost hardware components and open-source software to transmit soil moisture data from the Watermark 200SS or ECH2O EC-5 sensors. These monitoring systems utilized either Particle Electron or Particle Proton Arduino-compatible devices for data communication. The IoT soil moisture monitoring systems have been deployed and operated successfully over the last three years in South Carolina.

关键词： Soil Moisture Internet of Things IoT Arduino Sensors Irrigation

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Cotton Response to Variable Nitrogen Rate Fertigation through an Overhead Irrigation System

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Agricultural Sciences 2019年第1期10卷 66-80页

作者： Phillip B. Williams Ahmad Khalilian Michael W. Marshall Joe Mari Maja Haibo Liu Dara Park ali mirzakhani nafchi Department of Agricultural Sciences Clemson University Clemson USA Edisto Research and Education Center Clemson University Blackville USA Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences Clemson University Clemson USA Cooperative Extension Service Cornell University Ithaca USA

Recent increases in irrigated hectares in the Southeastern US have enabled growers to obtain higher yields through applying nutrients through irrigation water. Therefore, many growers apply nutrients through irrigation systems, known as fertigation. Currently, there are no practical decision-making tools available for variable-rate application of nitrogen (N) through overhead sprinkler irrigation systems. Therefore, field tests were conducted on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons to 1) adapt the Clemson sensor-based N recommendation algorithms from a single side-dress application to multiple applications through an overhead irrigation system;and 2) to compare sensor-based VRFS with conventional nutrient management methods in terms of N use efficiency (NUE) and crop responses on three soil types. Two seasons of testing Clemson N prediction algorithms to apply multiple applications of N were very promising. The multiple applications of N compared to the grower’s conventional methods (even though less N was applied) had no impact on yields in either growing season. There was no difference in cotton yields between 101 and 135 kg/ha N applications in either management zone. Also, there were no differences in yield between sensor-based, multiple N applications and conventional N management techniques. In relation to comparisons of the sensor methods only applying N in three or four applications, statistically increased yields compared to single or split applications in 2016. Applying N in four applications, statistically increased yields compared to single, split or triple applications in 2017. When the sensor-based methods were compared to the grower’s conventional methods averaged over four treatments, the sensor-based N applications reduced fertilizer requirement by 69% in 2016 and 57% in 2017 compared to grower’s conventional methods. When comparing N rates among the four sensor-based methods (three or four) applications, increased

关键词： Cotton Nitrogen Fertility Fertigation Irrigation Variable Rate Sensor Nutrient Management Precision Agriculture Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

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Development and Testing of a Variable Rate Nitrogen Application System through an Overhead Irrigation System

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Journal of Water Resource and Protection 2018年第10期10卷 994-1011页

Nutrients are injected through overhead irrigation systems at a uniform rate in a process known as fertigation. The highly variable soils in the Southeastern US pose challenges for effective fertigation. Currently, there is no variable-rate fertigation system available to apply the correct amount of N within a field through an overhead irrigation system. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop and test a variable-rate N application system that works independently of irrigation water flow for site-specific N application. The variable-rate fertigation system (VRFS) was designed to apply different rates N using a pulse width modulation technique. The VRFS utilized the Clemson Lateral Irrigation Control software which controlled the solenoids in each zone by turning the N supply on and off (pulsing) for each zone. In this study, four tests were conducted to determine the uniformity of the VRFS. In test # 1, the pump output showed a linear slope relationship and was the same for water and N. In test # 2, nozzle flow and uniformity were determined using four different irrigation system travel speeds at N application rates of 31, 59, 88, and 113 kg/ha. There was a strong correlation (R2 = 0.9998) between irrigation system speed and N rate. In test # 3, the uniformity across the length of the irrigation system was determined. The nozzles produced an average flow of 31.1, 58.7, 87.6, and 112.7 kg N/ha with an overall average error of 0.1% across all N rates. Results also showed the system was capable of accurately applying N based on prescription maps with an error of less than 1.8%. Test # 4 was conducted to determine the accuracy of the map-based controller system for applying variable rate N. There was a strong correlation between target N and actual N rates (R2 = 0.9999). In summary, the VRFS applied the correct amounts of N within each zone by either manually controlling the pulsing mechanism or utilizing a prescription map to apply different rates through

关键词： Cotton Nitrogen Fertigation Irrigation Variable Rate Nutrient Management Precision Agriculture

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Development of an Internet of Things (IoT) System for Measuring Agricultural Runoff Quantity and Quality

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Agricultural Sciences 2021年第5期12卷 584-601页

作者： José O. Payero Michael W. Marshall ali mirzakhani nafchi Ahmad Khalilian Bhupinder S. Farmaha Rebecca Davis Wesley Porter George Vellidis Clemson University Edisto Research and Education Center Blackville USA Cornell University Ithaca USA University of Georgia Tifton USA

Runoff is an important component of the water balance of agricultural fields. Accurate measurement or estimation of agricultural runoff is important due to its potential impact on water quantity and quality. Since runoff from agricultural fields is sporadic and is often associated with irrigation and/or intense rainfall events, manually measuring runoff and collecting water samples for water quality analysis during runoff events is inconvenient and impractical. In the fall of 2017, a field site was selected at the Clemson University Edisto Research and Education Center with the objective of developing, constructing, and testing an Internet of things (IoT) flume system to automatically measure runoff and collect water samples. In 2018, an automatic IoT system was developed and installed consisting of six stainless steel H-flumes (22.9-cm), which measured runoff from six adjacent research plots under two different cultural regimes (cover crop and no cover crop). An electronic eTape sensor was installed in the flume and used to measure the water level or the flume’s head. Open-source electronic (Arduino) devices and a cloud-based platform were then used to create a wireless sensor network and IoT system to automatically record the amount of runoff (hydrograph) coming from each section, collect water samples and transmit the data to a Cloud server (***) where the data can be viewed remotely in real-time. The IoT flume system has been operating successfully and reliably for more than two years.

关键词： Flume Runoff Water Quality Cover Crop Erosion

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Development of GPS-Based Multi-Channel Controllers for Research Plot Pesticide Applicators

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Agricultural Sciences 2017年第4期8卷 302-315页

作者： Ahmad Khalilian Young J. Han Joe M. Maja James Thomas Michael W. Marshall ali mirzakhani-nafchi Jose O. Payero Daniel J. Anco Department of Agricultural Sciences Clemson University Clemson USA Edisto Research and Education Center Clemson University Blackville USA Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences Clemson University Clemson USA

Pesticide efficacy tests are typically conducted in experimental plots which involve applying multiple chemical treatments at different application rates and timings. Utilizing a single boom pesticide applicator requires navigating to individual plots, applying a pesticide assigned to those plots and when all replications are completed, cleaning the equipment and reloading the next pesticide treatment into the tank. It usually takes several hours to accomplish this task, especially when the left hand side of a plot requires a different pesticide treatment than the right hand side. In order to facilitate application of pesticide treatments in experimental plots, two map-based controller systems were developed to drive multi-channel pesticide applicators. The Clemson “Multi-Channel Chemical Controllers” consist of solid-state relays controlled by custom software, solenoid valves, and GPS receivers. The first system can control up to 24 individual booms which could independently apply up to 24 different chemical treatments in each field plot area. The second system is the Clemson “Intelligent Farm Controller” (iFc), which could be connected to a variety of devices, such as spray and motor actuators. For this study, the controller was designed to handle four output pins to control four relays;however, it could easily be expanded to control more relays, if needed. On average, these systems reduced application times in test fields from six hours to 20 minutes, compared to single-boom applicators (p = 0.001), thereby reducing the time interval between treatment applications and significantly reducing the potential effect of adverse weather.

关键词： Controllers Spray Booms Precision Agriculture GPS Pesticides

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An Electro-Mechanical Controller for Adjusting Piston Pump Stroke On-the-Go for Site-Specific Application of Crop Nutrients

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Agricultural Sciences 2017年第9期8卷 949-959页

作者： ali mirzakhani nafchi Joe Mari Maja Ahmad Khalilian Young Han Nicholas Rogers Jose O. Payero Michael W. Marshall Phillip B. Williams Jonathan Fox Department of Agricultural Sciences Clemson University Clemson SC USA Edisto Research and Education Center Clemson University Blackville SC USA

Nutrient application systems are designed to apply a relatively uniform amount of a fertilizer to agricultural fields. However, considerable variation in soil texture and other characteristics often occurs within and across production fields, which could have a major impact on fertilizer management strategies. Therefore, uniform application of a fertilizer over the entire field can be both costly and environmentally unsound. Due to their rugged and fool-proof design, crankshaft type piston pumps are widely used in agriculture. The on-the-go outlet flow of these pumps can only be varied by changing the drive shaft speed for each pump stroke setting. But only a limited range of flow rates can be achieved by changing the drive shaft speed. There is a need for an electronic controller, which can adjust the pump stroke on-the-go, for real-time, variable-rate application of crop nutrients. The Clemson “Electro-me-chanical controller for adjusting pump stroke on-the-go” was designed to replace the current manual stroke adjustment system on positive displacement piston pumps. This affordable system can be retrofitted on most John Blue - piston pumps for real-time adjustment of the pump stroke and can be controlled using pre-described position sequences (map-based) or real-time sensor commands (such as optical, pressure, and flow sensors) combined with fertilizer calculation algorithms. In addition, it can adjust pump stroke manually, using an eclectic dial from the tractor’s cab.

关键词： Electro-Mechanical Controller Metering Piston Pumps Nutrient Management Precision Agriculture Pump Stroke

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